Human

Human Beings or Humans or Man (Latin: Homo sapiens, meaning Wise Human) are a sentient species of the Genus Homo and part of the ape family. They were the first sentient species to develop advanced methods of living on their home planet of Earth, fossil records date Human existence at about 200,000 years. They are rated a Tier 3 species on the Forerunner Technological Achievement system. Although it is possible they may have adopted a lower Tier 2 during and after the Human-Covenant war by means of weapons research and development.

Background
Throughout their existence, Humans have developed their civilization by engaging in food production on a larger scale, developing language, developing religion and political philosophies, and exhibiting telescoping technological and infrastructural development. They were studying the stars long before they were able to travel out of their atmosphere. After succeeding in space colonization, the human race was able to terraform and inhabit other planets besides Earth, but the human race is under pressure due to the discovery of the caste-driven Covenant after several centuries of space travel. The total population at the end of the war is unknown. The Homo sapiens sapiens were believed to have appeared in Earth's fossil record between approximately 100,000 and 200,000 years ago (there was another subspecies of Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens idaltu; this subspecies became extinct, but was believed to have lived as long as 160,000 years previous). While the exact origin of humanity is a hotly contested paleontological debate, it is likely that the first humans evolved from a genus of upright ape-like hominids called Australopithecus (i.e. Australopithecus). The current human race is not the only humanoid species known to live on Earth, but the Homo sapiens sapiens are believed to have either displaced or merely outlasted all other branches of the genus, including Homo neanderthals and Homo sapiens idaltu. Homo sapiens sapiens usually stand 6' tall, though this varies depending on nutrition, genetics and other factors. Members of the species, like some Covenant species, are four-limbed and bipedal which means they walk upright on two legs and use their arms and hands (including opposable thumbs) to hold and manipulate objects such as tools.

The development of human civilization as humans recognize it today started from the ability to harness the growth cycle of plants, producing edible food-energy in a systemic fashion. This time is referred to as the Neolithic Revolution, which occurred first on Earth over 10,000 years ago and soon spread to disparate human groups. The stability that came from systemic agriculture allowed for more permanent settlements and the development of ever-more-complex tools to further benefit the members of the species.

Innovated toolmaking and the domestication of other species on Earth gave human populations greater and greater power to expand their populations, and trade ensured the diffusion of new technologies to adjacent groups. These exploding populations led to the formation of the first genuine civilizations over 8,500 years ago. The sites of such early cultures are believed to have formed in Southwest Asia and Asia Minor, and appeared elsewhere soon after. The infrastructure of civilizations continued to expand and grow in complexity as innovative technologies and larger populations allowed for increasing food-energy availability. Economic, political and scientific advancement continued to quicken as this species was able to automate many tasks in the Industrial Revolution.

This automation gave birth to the Digital Revolution, in which computing machines allowed scientific discovery and technological development to accelerate with explosive speed. Larger urban centers and tools for civilian and military uses were able to develop, as were more modern economic and political systems. As these systems developed further, the species was able to enjoy longer, more pro-creative, and more comfortable lives, virtually impervious to other creatures from whose midst they sprang. Thus-unchecked, human population growth eventually led to the presence of several billions more humans on Earth than could be comfortably sustained, ultimately leading to a high demand for humans to expand out-world.

Development of Civilization
According to the Darwinian evolutionary theory, humans evolved from primates somewhere in East Africa, in which humans started forming Hunter-Gatherer societies during the first hundred thousands years of existence. These tribes were extremely inquisitive and were the first to engage in forms of Communication and Toolmaking (despite the fact the genus homo has been undergoing this for thousands of years before humans existed, human society was much different compared to their closer relatives). Highly mobile, they quickly spread to almost every major land formation except Antarctica, and quickly became the dominant creature on the planet. Approximately 10,000 years ago, human society began to emerge in the form of civilizations, featuring forms of farming, fishing, mining, metallurgy, and creating laws, language, and religions - often radically different depending on region - though all would share several basic fundamental aspects. The use of metallurgy for military weapons and defenses allowed these cultures to spread and conquer other lands in the name of their own, ultimately leading to the dominant rise of European nations and, in turn, to intercontinental Euro-Imperialistic colonies. Effects from the political schisms that these nations would later have with their own colonies however would have remarkable long-term ramifications for the course of mankind. Ramifications that earlier ages of humans could have never imagined, as the concept of democratic rule by Constitutional Law over the long established systems of centralized government monarchy would slowly gain momentum.

18th-20th Century
The 18th through 20th centuries were times of drastic change for countries known as the "Industrial Revolution". As an unintended result of major political and economic ramifications due to the rise of constitutional governments and refined capitalist resource management techniques, important inventions such as the automobile, electrical devices like the radio, and aircraft went into widespread use at previously unheard of rates for human innovations. Revolutionary progress in humanity's understanding of medicine and chemistry was also being made during this era of turning points. Such important chemical engineering advancements included anesthesia which dramatically enhanced all surgical practices, and plastics that could cheaply fulfill an enormous amount of material roles (with the better preservation of food being one of its greatest functions). Prior to such chemical and medical advances, average humans at the beginning of this time span could expect a lifespan of approximately 45 years, but towards its end, thanks to the introduction of antibiotics and other medicines combined with better food production and preservation, the age-old scourge of widespread plague and starvation was becoming virtually a thing of the past, and enabling people to live well beyond 80 and even into 100 years of age.

Essentially, Mankind was growing ever more efficient in how it applied itself to previous sciences and arts, and the art of the military would prove no exception to this pattern. There would be a rapid change in armed conflicts, starkly different from the primitive melee-oriented wars of the past; after 2 massive wars within the first 40 years of the 20th century, humanity saw the invention of such technologies as superior firearms and automatic weapons, radar, tanks, missiles, jet engines, and ultimately the atomic bomb, which became the most powerful weapon then known. Atomic bombs ultimately led to nuclear warheads, which eventually became key components in human arsenals in the brutal war against the Covenant.

In the next 60 years the superpower nations of the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (succeeded by the Commonwealth of Independent States) became highly competitive, leading to a period of military and cultural tension known as the "Cold War"; an arms race by which the lethality of humanity's relatively new warfare technologies would be further refined upon in their destructive potential and precision, complimented with ever evolving battlefield doctrines and tactics as both nations sought to intimidate the other, with the newly developed nuclear weapons playing a large part in this period. In the 1950s, the Soviet Union launched the earliest satellite and sent the first human, Yuri Gagarin, into space, officially making humans space faring, and entering Tier 3 in the Technological Achievement Tiers. The United States successfully launched the first human to the moon, and eventually surpassed the Soviet Union's space faring and military production capabilities, leaving their doctrines as the ones that would heavily influence the UNSC in later centuries.

Additionally, with the creation of computers and the Internet in the late 20th century, achievements from that era would dramatically revolutionize communication and data processing, further streamlining mankind's rate of technological progress. World politics also changed, with the early history of the United Nations beginning during this time period. The religiously neutral nature of many of these constitutional style governments also saw a relative diminish in the influence ideological dogma had upon a society, with scientific and logical explanations for phenomena and methodology rising in importance, although religion would remain a staple of human societies. In the later end of the 20th century, satellites were now using solar energy over primitive battery sources to power itself (as seen with earlier models) thus leading to a very long lifetime. And with this, satellites saw a much more massive and broader usage as means to send and retrieve data and communications, and additionally a method of navigation to both normal civilians as well as military purposes. Although much of the technology used during this time is disregarded as "primitive" by the standards of the 26th century, they were all somehow a precursor to all of technologies utilized later by the UNSC.

Colonization and War


The species was able to explore the space immediately surrounding their home planet in the 20th century, as the population began to advance beyond the capacity of the planet to comfortably sustain their civilization. The subsequent conflict over resources, economics, religion and politics on Earth gave way to numerous wars. Furthermore these tensions put great pressure on the species in the beginning of the twenty-third century, and the transnational organization that became the United Nations Space Command engaged in more frequent space colonization and sought to represent the entire species, even though no one state ever previously ruled the entire human race. The development of Slipspace travel in 2291 helped the UNSC engage in spreading the human race beyond their home solar system, relieving the serious ecological pressure on the home world.

Simultaneously, this expansion was also to usher in promising new opportunities for humanity, as some of these colonies, such as planet Reach with its bountiful titanium deposits, could offer abundant stores of raw materials that may had otherwise been considerably unique and scarce on Earth. With the initial advent of interplanetary trade driving down the costs of what may had once been an expensive implementation of their technology - such as the forging of space-worthy ships and naval vessels - the effects from these carefully implemented first colonization projects helped to ensure that interstellar trade, travel and communication were to be more commonplace amongst the general populace in the ensuring centuries, eventually granting humanity the capacity to expand to hundreds of worlds and establish colonies at enhanced rates.

The species as a whole was finally pushed into major conflict when, after several centuries of spreading throughout many solar systems and inhabiting hundreds of worlds,they discovered the violent, genocidal, theocratic Covenant, and were forced into the war covered by the Halo series. As the decades-long war wore on, the human species gained the reputation as a worthy adversary against the Covenant, despite the fact that they were technologically and numerically inferior.Humans could hold out on ground combat and often defeated the Covenant, but the Covenant in turn fled to space where they had virtually undisputed supremacy and glassed the planet.

Humans have been able to show great bravery when facing insurmountable odds. Some of the members of the Covenant wonder why the Hierarchs had refused to allow the humans to join them, as they had been able to hold steadfast even when outmatched in almost every way. However, despite great courage and brilliance, the future seemed dark for the survival of the human race as the Covenant continued to wipe out their colonies, marching ever closer to Earth. On October 20th 2552, Earth was found. In the ensuing battles over possession of Earth, humanity suffered heavy casulties.

March 3rd, 2553, saw the end of the Human-Covenant War as a victory for humanity and their new found Sangheili allies - the majority of the Covenant Loyalist military having been defeated at Delta Halo by the Sangheilian Fleet, and the rest annihilated by the joint Elite-UNSC forces at the Ark. This victory came in time to save the human home world, thanks chiefly to the actions of the Arbiter and Spartan John-117.

Technology
In early stages, human technology and knowledge advanced through simple trial and error in an inefficient manner, hampering faster progress. Although humans had developed writing very early on in their history, it wasn't until the invention of printing that information and ideas could be mass-communicated in an effective manner. The development of the scientific method in later conjunction with improved and more efficient capitalistic resource management techniques during the lessons of the "Industrial Revolution" resulted in stark accelerations in the development of technologies and the acquisition of knowledge. New technologies were experimented and explored with advanced knowledge of underlying principles as talented individuals were better organized and better supplied, allowing extremely accurate and fast improvements to be made with minimized trials and costs. Such methods of thought and organization are a hallmark of humanity which differs from the Covenant who, lacking proper researching methods, would simply copy and reverse-engineer technology from ancient Forerunner artifacts via the Engineers, whilst generally having no understanding of the underlying concepts themselves. Thus it it is said that the Covenant are "imitative" while the Humans are "innovative" as the war progresses.

In the 26th century human technology did not advance equally for every concept previously explored. The most basic technologies (such as the ballistic weaponry and the wheel) had undergone few principal changes, the explanation for this being their proven reliability over centuries of use. The technology worked and so did not require heavy alteration or major changes. Humans however did have other great advancements such as Shaw-Fujikawa Translight Engines that are capable of reaching other star systems, as well as the creation of highly sophisticated AIs that could serve to fulfill a versatile amount of roles.


 * Weapons: While still primarily based on projectiles and chemical reactions, human weapons are still more advanced than the weapons of the 21st century. They come with a variety of electronic gadgets such as ammo readouts and are significantly more reliable, seldom malfunctioning. They are also generally immune to electromagnetic pulses. Still, there have been some advanced developments, such as the Magnetic Accelerator Cannon, which is extensively used on ships as well as on vehicles and ground based weapons. A similar weapon, the rail-gun, was experimented with in the 20th century. There have been developments in energy weapons such as the Spartan Laser and the experimental pulse lasers used on UNSC Prowler. Although some of these breakthroughs could have been because of captured Covenant technology, humans have previously used laser technology. Humans may have a good understanding of particle beam technology but have yet to utilize it in their weaponry. One of the largest breakthroughs came in the mid 20th century where humans discovered that nuclear fission and fusion can be used as a weapon to cause a large explosion, with such warheads seen in many missile installations and UNSC warships during naval battles. Innovation in this area would also converge in the creation of humanities most devastating weapon during the war effort, known as the NOVA Bomb.


 * Vehicles: Though human vehicles still rely on crude wheeled or continuous track motion for locomotion, UNSC vehicles are still extremely advanced, incorporating high-strength materials with precision engineering to improve mobility and durability, while often mounting a variety of weapons or equipment to increase their flexibility. Most have switched from fossil fuels to hydrogen-fuel cell engines or at the very least use hybrid-electric engines for enhanced fuel efficiency. The most powerful of Human vehicles usually run on continuous tracks that allow them to better distribute their weight over uneven ground and to better grip uneven terrain thus allowing for the vehicles to go places where other wheeled counterparts could never, but the vehicles are usually heavier than their wheeled counterparts. *However, the humans' armored units seen throughout the Halo series (i.e. Scorpions) have a small caliber cannon compared to even modern day MBTs. With only a 90 mm cannon, the UNSC Scorpion seems underpowered by today's standards, but there may be other advances not revealed which compensate for this, such as it's high rate of fire compared to today's tanks, and advanced ammunition.


 * Air Vehicles: Most UNSC aircraft are designed with Vertical-Takeoff-Vertical-Landing capabilities, using adjustable jet engines for lift and thrust. It is possible that some incorporate Lifting Body principles.


 * Medical Advances: The use of Sterile Field Generators means that surgery is not only safer to perform, with a greatly reduced risk of infection, but is also able to be performed in the field. Combat personnel also use Biofoam, an expanding semi-organic compound that fills and pressurizes a wound, numbing it at the same time.


 * Space-Faring: During the Mid 20th century, Humanity experimented with rocket technology using it to build satellites and visit and subsequently colonize the Moon and beyond. With the advent of Slipspace engines allowing faster-than-light travel, the UNSC was able to expand well beyond the confines of the Solar System, colonizing a number of worlds. UNSC freighters transport food and goods between colonies, while UNSC Navy warships protect trade routes from pirates and defend colonies from enemy assault.

Population
It is known that in the 22nd century, Earth was deemed overpopulated, jump-starting the colonization programs of the time. After twenty seven years of war with the genocidal Covenant, the human race was brought to the brink of extinction, reduced to approximately only two hundred million. At the beginning of the Human-Covenant War, the population would be estimated at around 58.074 billion.

Explanation
2525 - 1999 = 526 years. The population in 1999 was 6 billion. The population has risen at a rate of roughly 99 million people per year and this may increase over time given complex economic circumstances in evaluating birth rates versus death tolls. Given that the current estimated rate more or less holds however; 526 × 99 million (1.67% each year) + 6 billion = 58.074 billion humans on Earth and elsewhere throughout UNSC space by the time of the events of the Human-Covenant War (provided that progress in medical understanding has further extended average life expectancy however, the final population total is likely to be higher). Note that this is only a rough estimation, and does not take into account potential demographic shifts (in which nations show a tendency to harbor significantly reduced birth rates after they become fully developed in exchange for living longer), nor does it take into consideration the death toll on account of wars between circa. 2000 and the 26th century. Given the fact that most of the UNSC's colonies have only been colonized comparatively recently, with many having populations only in the hundreds of thousands (ie; Harvest) or tens of millions (ie; Sigma Octanus IV), it can be reasonably assumed that the earliest established colonies are the only ones to possess populations that rival Earth, and that Earth remains the most heavily populated planet.

There exists another considerable fallacy with this method of estimation; typically human population growth is not linear but exponential (i.e. the amount of growth per year increases each year). The current estimated world population growth is 1.17% per year. Once again, the logarithmic effect of potential demographic transitions of each individual population can scarcely be factored, given how unknown increases in average life expectancy would hold a heavy influence in these totals (as many social scientists will credit falling death rates over breeding rates as the primary factor in growing a total population, hence, life expectancy would further weigh on the total population). However, based on the fact that in 1999 the population was 6,000,000,000, then were it to increase by 1.17% per year for 526 years, we can be predict the population of 2525 to be at around 272,503,288,260, or 272.5 billion. In terms of population density, if humanity has colonized about 800 planets, that's about an average of 340 million people for each planet.

Anatomy and Physiology
Humans are mammals, and closely related to other dominant apes on the planet Earth, meaning that they are warm blooded and give birth to live offspring, and nourish their offspring with milk. They have five fingers, one including an opposable thumb, which a few covenant species do not have and was a major part in helping humans dominate on earth. Unlike Elites, their circulatory system is closed and consists of one heart, and a network of blood vessels and red blood due to the iron based hemoglobin of humans, as well as two lungs which breathe mainly a nitrogen-oxygen based atmosphere. Externally they have more hair than most covenant species but not nearly as much as Brutes. Their eyes have more pinpointed pupils, and additionally have a poor sense of hearing and smell. They are omnivorous, meaning that they will eat both meats and plants, as well as consume high calcium foods, such as the milk of other animals, in great quantities. Their bone structure is much different than a few covenant species. They have a large calcium deposit, as well as a more developed bone structure for protecting organs, allowing them to be a perfect target for The Flood. Muscle-wise, they are leaner and posses less muscle matter, as majority of covenant species have the ability to pick up humans. In theory at least, physical conditioning can still negate this somewhat as even a standard UNSC marine can be witnessed flipping a turned over vehicle, and with the right enhancements and equipment, overcome their physical disadvantages to an even further extent as demonstrated by the SPARTANs which are as strong as the Elites.

Connections Between the Forerunners and Humans

 * A common theory among the Halo community is that the Forerunners are the ancient ancestors of the Human species. Examples of possible descent include the fact that only humans can take the the Index from its resting place in the Library, as well as comments made by 343 Guilty Spark during the Halo Trilogy. In the 3 games, the Monitor conveys confusion about the ignorance the humans have regarding the Halo array . Halo 3 seems to give the most evidence for the theory of humans being Forerunner descendants. 343 Guilty Spark tells the Master Chief: "You are the child of my makers. Inheritor of all they left behind. You are Forerunner!"
 * In Halo: Combat Evolved, 343 Guilty Spark confuses the Master Chief with a Forerunner, referring to conversations they never had. This would imply that the Forerunners were very similar in appearance to Humanity.
 * The High Prophet of Truth also tells Sergeant Major Johnson: "Your Forefathers wisely set aside their compassion. Steeled themselves for what needed to be done. I see now why they left you behind. You were weak. And gods must be strong."
 * However, the web comic that included the character N'chala makes this theory less likely. It seemingly disproved the theory with the combination of the Server 05 message from the Iris viral campaign and the Terminals of Halo 3 explaining that the Forerunners discovered humanity on a planet in a "perilous location beyond the line" (Maginot Line, meaning that Earth was outside of the Forerunners' protection). The Librarian built a portal to the Ark before Didact fired the array, ensuring humanity's survival from the Halos and the Flood. As shown with the Bestiarum the Forerunners worked to categorize species that they found. Humanity then, was not created by the Forerunner.
 * Another theory (one supported by the Halo 3 Terminals) is that the humans became the inheritors of the Forerunner empire and technology because the Forerunners passed the Mantle of Guardianship down to humanity, as it was passed to them, presumably from the Precursors.
 * Another similarity is on the level Sacred Icon, when you deactivate the plug locks then a holographic hand comes up and it looks just like a human hand. This implies Forerunner technology was intended for Human usage, or is at least compatible with human anatomy.
 * During the events in Halo: Contact Harvest, Covenant religious vehicles traveled the edge of Covenant-controlled space and discovered a planet that was covered with Forerunner "Reclamation" glyphs, who were actually the humans. A Brute Chieftain known as Maccabeus (uncle of Tartarus) landed on the planet (Harvest) and was, at first, passive towards the humans. He claimed the planet in the name of the Covenant due to the presence of a large number of Forerunner relics (which in fact were Humans') and an Oracle. It wasn't until a shot rang out did things turn bloody. Later, a report of the planet's glyphs was sent to the Vice Minister of Tranquility (Regret). He took the information to the Minister of Fortitude (Truth) and they went to see the Oracle (the Forerunner AI in the Dreadnought). Upon activation of the Oracle, the AI exclaimed, "FOR EONS I HAVE WATCHED. LISTENED TO YOU MISINTERPRET. THIS IS NOT RECLAMATION. THIS IS RECLAIMER." After those words, the glyphs in the report were shown and they began to transform shape until a crude image of a human appeared. The Oracle adds, "AND THOSE IT REPRESENTS ARE MY MAKERS. I WILL REJECT MY BIAS AND WILL MAKE AMENDS. MY MAKERS ARE MY MASTERS. I WILL BRING THEM SAFELY TO THE ARK." After that, the power conduits aboard the Dreadnought short circuit as several frying, dead Lekgolo worms fall out of the spaces. The Dreadnought powers down. Truth, believing that the humans were actually Forerunner (rather than being related), believed this information could destroy the foundation of the Covenant and, with it, his power. Upon being promoted (through blackmail) to High Prophet, he used his power to set out a massive religious genocide against the humans.
 * "Child of my enemy, why have you come? I offer no forgiveness; for the father's sins pass to his son." -The Gravemind speaking to the Master Chief, acknowledging a relationship between Humanity and the Forerunners.
 * The Halo Encyclopedia has confirmed that Forerunners were deeply fascinated by humanity and felt that humans were meant to carry on their legacy as custodians of the galaxy. They also felt that could learn a lot about themselves and their own existence through the intense study of humans.